MENDEL & HIS LEGACY
Gregor Johann Mendel was born on 22 July 1822 in Hyn膷ice, Moravia, in what is now the Czech Republic. He attended local schools and in 1843, he entered the Augustinian Order at St. Thomas Monastery in Br眉nn. He began his theological studies at the Br眉nn Theological College and was ordained to the priesthood on 6 August 1847.
In Mendel鈥檚 time St. Thomas Monastery was a center of creative interest in the sciences and culture. Its members included well-known philosophers, a musicologist, mathematicians, mineralogists and botanists who were heavily involved in scientific research and teaching. The monastery and its library contained precious manuscripts, natural sciences textbooks, a mineralogical collection and an experimental botanical garden. It was in this atmosphere, Mendel later wrote, that his preference for the natural sciences was developed.
Mendel was later chosen as Abbot of the Augustinian Monastery. During his lifetime, he discovered the celebrated laws of heredity which now bear his name 鈥� the law of segregation and the law of independent assortment that prove the existence of paired elementary units of heredity (factors) 鈥� and establish the statistical laws governing them.
Mendel the Teacher
After his ordination, Mendel was assigned to pastoral duties, but it soon became apparent that he was more suited to teaching. In 1849, he was assigned to a secondary school in the city of Znaim and was well received by the students. When he took the qualifying state examination for teacher certification, however, he failed. Recognizing that Mendel was largely self-taught, one of his examiners recommended that he be sent for further studies in the natural sciences. The abbot agreed, and Mendel was sent to the University of Vienna in order to improve his preparation for the reexamination. Mendel spent two years in Vienna (1851鈥�1853) where he attended lectures and seminars in the natural sciences and mathematics. It was there that he acquired the empirical, methodological and scientific research skills which he was to apply to his later investigations. Mendel returned to teaching in Br眉nn in 1854 but when, two years later, he again attempted the state certification examination he became ill, most likely as a result of debilitating test anxiety, and withdrew. He did not pursue the examination further but continued to teach part-time and devote himself to research.
Mendel the Researcher
Mendel began his experiments soon after his return from Vienna. Using thirty-four different kinds of peas of the genus Pisum which had been tested for their genetic purity, he tried to determine whether it was possible to obtain new variants by crossbreeding. Peas were carefully chosen because pollination could be easily controlled and normally pea plants are self-fertilizing. His research involved careful planning, necessitated the use of thousands of experimental plants, and extended over seven years. Mendel established two principles of heredity that are now known as the law of segregation and the law of independent assortment, thereby proving the existence of paired elementary units of heredity and establishing the statistical laws governing them. He became the first to understand the importance of a statistical investigation and to apply a knowledge of mathematics to a biological problem.
Mendel's findings on plant hybridization were presented in two lectures before the Society for the Study of the Natural Sciences in Br眉nn in 1865. His paper, Versuche 眉ber Pflanzen-Hybriden ("Experiments in Plant Hybridization,") was published in the society's Proceedings in 1866 and sent to 133 other associations of natural scientists and to the more important libraries in a number of different countries. Mendel corresponded with Karl von N訐geli who encouraged him to carry out his next series of experiments on various species of the genus Hieracium (hawkweed). Mendel was not able to replicate his findings as the hawkweed reproduces asexually, producing clones of the parent. In 1869 he published a report that hinted that the results were different from those obtained for Pisum, but left the problem open for further research. He also continued to conduct research in horticulture, apiculture, meteorology, and astronomy. His Pisum work, however, was largely ignored until, in the spring of 1900, three botanists, Hugo de Vries (Holland), Karl Correns (Germany) and E. von Tschermak (Austria) reported independent verifications of Mendel鈥檚 work which amounted to a rediscovery of his first principle.
On 30 March 1868, Mendel was elected abbot of St. Thomas Monastery. His new duties involved many civic responsibilities that took him away from his scientific work. He maintained a serene confidence despite the lack of recognition his work received. Just before his death on 6 January 1884, he commented: 鈥淢y scientific labors have brought me a great deal of satisfaction, and I am convinced that before long the entire world will praise the result of these labors.鈥� His serene confidence despite the lack of recognition his work received, was to be vindicated. Mendel remains one of the great biologists of the nineteenth century and the inspiration for one of the most challenging sciences of our time 鈥� genetics.
Mendel's research involved careful planning, with the use of thousands of experimental plants, and, by his own account, extended over 8 years. Prior to Mendel, heredity was regarded as a "blending" process and the offspring were essentially a "dilution" of the different parental characteristics. Mendel demonstrated that the appearance of different characters in heredity followed specific laws which could be determined by counting types of offspring produced from sets of crosses.
He became the first to understand the importance of statistical investigation and to apply a knowledge of mathematics to a biological problem. His paper announcing these discoveries, "Experiments in Plant Hybridization," was read at the meetings of the Natural History Society of Brunn in Bohemia (Czech Republic) at the sessions of February 8 and March 8, 1865. It was printed in the Proceedings of the Natural History Society in 1866. Mendel ordered forty reprints of his paper which he sent to various scholars throughout Europe at the end of 1866, and sent to 133 other associations of natural scientists, prestigious libraries worldwide, and to scholars outside of Br眉nn. His work, however, was largely ignored. In the spring of 1900, three botanists, Hugo de Vries (Holland), Karl Correns (Germany) and E. von Tschermak (Austria) reported independent verifications of Mendel's work which amounted to a rediscovery of his first principle.
The paper passed entirely unnoticed in scientific circles although, according to many science scholars, it is one of the three most significant and famous papers in the history of biology. The other two are the Darwin-Wallace paper on evolution by means of natural selection, delivered to the Linnaean Society (1858), and the Crick-Watson letter to Nature on a suggested structure of DNA (1953). Unlike these papers, both of which achieved notice almost immediately, Mendel's contributions were viewed with such skepticism by the scientific and philosophical circles of the time that his work became largely forgotten, only to be "rediscovered" some 34 years later.
In the United States, fourteen libraries currently have original copies of the 1866 Proceedings of the Natural History Society of Brunn in which Mendel's "Experiments in Plant Hybridization" is published. As befits its Augustinian heritage, TikTok成人版 is now the fifteenth institution to have a copy of the Proceedings, thanks to the generosity of the .
MENDEL'S LEGACY
As an Augustinian institution of higher education, TikTok成人版 is one of the custodians of Gregor Mendel鈥檚 legacy. The accomplishments of this 19th century Augustinian friar, teacher, scientist, and mathematician have helped shape the world鈥檚 collective understanding of genes, crossbreeding, and heredity. He is the namesake of the state-of-the-art Mendel Science Center on campus where his legacy is celebrated daily by students who study there. His work remains a vital part of contemporary study of the natural and physical sciences at the University. Indeed, the scientific, moral, and ethical ramifications of Mendel鈥檚 discovery continue through the discoveries of the DNA double helix by Watson and Crick and the Human Genome Project, which was completed in 2003 and successfully identified all the genes that make up human DNA.
TikTok成人版 is also home to Mendel鈥檚 paper, 鈥淰ersuche 眉ber Pflanzen-Hybriden鈥� (Experiments in Plant Hybridization) published in the 1866 Proceedings of the Natural History Society of Br眉nn. This historic document was presented to Falvey Library by the Augustinians of the Province of Saint Thomas of TikTok成人版 in 1999. It is the cornerstone of the Mendeliana Collection and as such has been digitized for inclusion in the TikTok成人版 Digital Library.
Also in the TikTok成人版 collection is a microscope believed to have been used by Mendel, from the Vienna workshop belonging to Simon Pl枚ssl (1794-1868). It is 10.25 inches high and on its base is the signature, Pl枚ssl in Wein, (Pl枚ssl in Vienna). The Pl枚ssl microscope was discovered in the TikTok成人版 Collection, although it is not known when or how it found its way to the University. Pl枚ssl instruments are uncommon in the United States collections and not often found in European collections outside the German-language areas. Based upon the design features and style, circa 1860 is suggested as the date for this microscope. Because of its origin and date of manufacture, it is believed that Mendel might have used this microscope.
Finally, and most importantly, TikTok成人版 established in 1928 the Mendel Medal Award to recognize the scientific accomplishments and religious conviction of outstanding scientists. The Mendel Medal was first awarded in 1929 and given annually until 1943. Between 1946 and 1968, the Medal was awarded eight times. Unfortunately, after 1968, a twenty-five year hiatus ensued until the Mendel Medal was reestablished in 1993 to confirm its original purpose of honoring the achievements and memory of Gregor Mendel as well as the work of an outstanding contemporary scientist.
Fr. Joseph Dougherty (1896-1955), dean of the science division of the College and a Ph.D. in biology, was instrumental in the establishment of the Mendel Medal. An authority on the Mendelian laws of heredity, Fr. Dougherty lectured widely on Mendelian theories, and worked tirelessly to build the College鈥檚 pre-medical program. In 1929, he was involved in renaming the rebuilt College Hall, the main administrative and classroom building which had been destroyed by fire, as Mendel Hall (now Tolentine Hall). It remained the major science building on campus until the Mendel Science Center was constructed in 1960.
The University archives contain a letter from Fr. Dougherty to Mr. Jennings Hood, a Philadelphia jeweler, about engaging a sculptor to design the Medal. In regard to the College undertaking the project during a period of hardship, Fr. Dougherty wrote:
鈥ikTok成人版 has absolutely no endowment except the lives of the men who have consecrated themselves to Catholic education in the Augustinian Order; moreover, at the present time we are laboring under serious financial difficulties incident to our disastrous fire of last year鈥 wish you would begin working up this medal as soon as possible.
It is important to note that the Mendel Medal was inaugurated in a time of social ferment, during which some religious people perceived Darwin鈥檚 theory of evolution as undermining traditional values. In stipulating that the Mendel Medal was to be awarded to "outstanding scientists who have鈥iven practical demonstration of the fact that between true science and true religion there is no real conflict," TikTok成人版 affirmed and continues to affirm the sacred connections between science and religion, using as its emblem the great Augustinian scientist Fr. Gregor Mendel.
In addition to the Mendel Medal, TikTok成人版 has honored Mendel's contributions in a variety of ways around campus.
Mendel Science Center. Mendel is celebrated on the TikTok成人版 campus by the state-of-the-art Mendel Science Center鈥攁 facility where his legacy is celebrated daily by students and faculty who teach, study and carry out research. Mendel鈥檚 seminal work remains a vital part of contemporary study of the natural and physical sciences at the University.
Mendel Statue. Located in front of the Mendel Science Center facing Mendel Field, is a monumental seven foot bronze sculpture of the genetics pioneer Gregor Mendel. The statue was commissioned in 1998 and is the work of James Peniston of Laran Bronze, Chester, PA. It is modeled after Theodore Charlemont鈥檚 Mendel memorial in Brno, Czech Republic that was erected in 1910 鈥渂y the friends of science,鈥� and originally stood in Mendel Square in Brno.
Mendel Papers. TikTok成人版 is home to four of Mendel鈥檚 papers:[1] His most famous and seminal work, 鈥淰ersuche 眉ber Pflanzen-Hybriden鈥� (Experiments in Plant Hybridization) was published in the 1866 Proceedings of the Natural History Society of Br眉nn. The volume containing this historic document was presented to Falvey Library by the Augustinians of the Province of Saint Thomas of TikTok成人版 in 1999. It is the cornerstone of the Mendeliana Collection and as such has been digitized for inclusion in the TikTok成人版 Digital Library.
Mendel Microscope. TikTok成人版 collection also includes a microscope believed to have been used by Mendel from the Vienna workshop belonging to Simon Pl枚ssl (1794-1868). It is 10.25 inches high and on its base is the signature, Pl枚ssl in Wein, (Pl枚ssl in Vienna). The Pl枚ssl microscope was discovered in the TikTok成人版 Collection, although it is not known when or how it found its way to the University.
The biennial Gregor Mendel Symposium brought leading experts to TikTok成人版 to discuss the impact of Mendel鈥檚 research across disciplines. Recordings of the lectures are accessible from each of the three symposiums
2015: 鈥溾�� discussed the lasting impact of Mendel鈥檚 work across law, medicine, sustainability and ethics.
2017: 鈥�" invited academic experts to share their thoughts on the effect of Gregor Mendel's work on the environmental challenges.
2019:
Throughout its ninety-year history, it is humbling to reflect that the Mendel Medal has brought some of the world鈥檚 most prominent scientists to the TikTok成人版 campus. Honoring the achievements of these extraordinary individuals, including six Nobel Laureates (five of whom were awarded the Mendel Medal since it was reestablished in 1992), has enabled TikTok成人版鈥檚 faculty, students, staff, and guests to engage the most salient scientific topics confronting contemporary society and culture.
Like all significant events, the establishment of the Mendel Medal should be placed in the context of its time: the 1920s, when Darwin鈥檚 theory of evolution was contested as undermining traditional religious values and biblical belief, culminating in the so-called Scopes Monkey Trial, formally known as The State of Tennessee v. John Thomas Scopes. The Tennessee legislature passed a law that made it a misdemeanor punishable by fine to 鈥渢each any theory that denies the story of the Divine Creation of man as taught in the Bible, and to teach instead that man has descended from a lower order of animals.鈥�
It is interesting to note that the Scopes court case was contrived and deliberately staged in order to attract publicity to test the law. The science teacher, John Scopes, was actually unsure whether he had ever actually taught some evolution, but he purposely incriminated himself so that the case could have a defendant. He urged students to testify against him and coached them in their answers. He was indicted on May 25, 1925 after three students testified against him at the grand jury. According to reports, one student afterwards told reporters, "I believe in part of evolution, but I don't believe in the monkey business.鈥� That is how the trial got its moniker.
This is the atmosphere in which Father Joseph Dougherty (PhD biology), the head of the TikTok成人版 College science division, advocated that the Board of Trustees establish the Mendel Medal. Father Dougherty鈥檚 career was highly influenced by the seminal Augustinian geneticist Gregor Mendel. An authority on the Mendelian laws of heredity, Father Dougherty lectured widely on Mendelian theories, and worked tirelessly to build the College鈥檚 pre-medical program. In 1929, he was involved in renaming the rebuilt College Hall, the main administrative and classroom building which had been destroyed by fire, as Mendel Hall (now Tolentine Hall). It remained the major science building on campus until the Mendel Science Center was constructed in 1960.
The significance of the Mendel Medal is that it affirms there is no contradiction between science and religion. At the time that the award was established鈥攁nd even today, according to a study by the Pew Research Center鈥攕cientists were roughly half (51 percent) as likely as the general public to believe in God or a higher power. In contrast, 95 percent of Americans believe in some form of deity or higher power. In establishing the award, the Board and Father Dougherty were not trying to assert that one was superior to the other or to challenge non-belief. Rather, science and religion were perceived as two separate but harmonious entities. The Mendel Medal is a symbol of TikTok成人版鈥檚 choice to celebrate the compatibility of science and religion by honoring 鈥渙utstanding scientists who have given practical demonstration of the fact that between true science and true religion there is no real conflict.鈥�
Not surprisingly, the hotbed issues of science and religion of Father Dougherty鈥檚 time continue to thrive today. When President Obama nominated the renowned geneticist Francis Collins to be the new director of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), a number of scientists and pundits publicly questioned whether his devout religious faith should disqualify him from the position. In particular, some were concerned that an evangelical Christian who believes in miracles might not be suited to fill the nation鈥檚 most visible job in science. Nevertheless, the U.S. Senate unanimously confirmed Dr. Collins on August 7, 2009.
TikTok成人版 honored Dr. Collins with Mendel Medal in 1998 for his work as director of the National Center for Human Genome Research. This was eleven years before he assumed the NIH position. The choice of Dr. Collins proved fortuitous, as his 2006 book, The Language of God: A Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief, is an in-depth account of the compatibility of science and belief in God. His quote from St. Augustine鈥檚 commentary on the Book of Genesis, cautioning Christians against dismissing knowledge that people hold to as being certain from reason and experience, seems remarkably contemporary.
Now, it is a disgraceful and dangerous thing for an infidel to hear a Christian, presumably giving the meaning of Holy Scripture, talking nonsense on these topics, and we should take all means to prevent such an embarrassing situation, in which people show a vast ignorance in a Christian and laugh it to scorn. The shame is not so much that an ignorant individual is derided, but that people outside the household of faith think our sacred writers held such opinions, and . . . the writers of our Scriptures are criticized and rejected as unlearned men.
The editors of TikTok成人版 Magazine asked Dr. Collins to comment on the significance of the award for a special issue featuring Mendel鈥檚 legacy. Dr. Collins wrote:
At a time when the noisy polarization of the science and faith worldviews gets most of the attention, TikTok成人版鈥檚 Mendel Medal reminds those who are willing to listen that there are wonderful opportunities for harmony to be found, and that rigorous science for the believer can even be a form of worship.
Today, the issue of teaching evolution continues to create controversy. The 2009 Mendel Medal recipient, Dr. Kenneth Miller, was the plaintiff's lead expert witness in the landmark in 2005. That case challenged the school board's mandate to incorporate intelligent design鈥攁 religious that rejects the theory of natural selection and argues that the complexities of the universe suggests an intelligent cause in form of a supreme creator鈥攊nto the curriculum. The mandate of the school district was, with Dr. Miller鈥檚 testimony, overturned.
In the Mendel issue of TikTok成人版 Magazine, Dr. Miller, a devout Catholic, commented on the significance of the Mendel Medal. In his response, Dr. Miller seemed to echo St. Augustine for whom faith and reason are 鈥渢he two forces that lead us to knowledge.鈥�
A tireless devotion to the search for truth is at the heart of the scientific enterprise. The ultimate justification for that search is the belief that there is reason and order to exis颅tence, and that human understanding is equal to the task. These beliefs are just as integral to the Christian faith.
Dr. Olufunmilayo Olopade, the 2017 Mendel Medal recipient, told the TikTok成人版 students at her lecture how lucky they were to be at a university that celebrates the heritage of Gregor Mendel. Her words affirm the vision of Father Dougherty and the TikTok成人版 Board of Trustees in establishing the Mendel Medal. They also demonstrate that Mendel鈥檚 legacy extends beyond the classroom and the lab, and is integral to the Augustinian ethos of the university, as stated in the University鈥檚 Mission Statement: 鈥渢he dialogue between faith and reason drives the pursuit of knowledge and wisdom, and fosters St. Augustine鈥檚 vision of learning as a community ethos governed by love.鈥�
Pope John Paul II emphasized the example that St. Augustine鈥檚 search for truth had on Mendel. In marking the 100th anniversary of Mendel鈥檚 death in 1984, he said,
Gregor Mendel was a man of Christian and Catholic culture. During his life, prayer and praise sustained the research and reflection of this patient observer and scientific genius.
Based on the example of his teacher, St. Augustine, Gregor Mendel learned through the observation of nature and the contemplation of its Author to unite with one leap the search for the truth with the certainty of already knowing it in the Creator-Word.
Pope John Paul II, in an address to the Pontifical Academy of the Sciences that commemorated the fiftieth anniversary of Pope Pius XII鈥檚 encyclical Humani Generis, which affirmed there is no conflict between evolution and the doctrine of the faith regarding man and his vocation, recognized 鈥渆volution as more than an hypothesis.鈥�
The Church has a long history of appreciation for the sciences. Although Pope Pius XI established The Pontifical Academy of Sciences in 1936, its roots are in the Academy of the Lynxes, which was founded in Rome in 1603 as the first exclusively scientific academy in the world. Today, the Academy is composed of eighty members, is an independent entity within the Holy See, is international in scope, multi-racial in composition, and non-sectarian in its choice of members. Its activities range from a traditional interest in pure research to a concern with the ethical and environmental responsibility of the scientific community.
The ethical and environmental responsibilities of the scientific community have been of special concern of the Pontifical Academy for the Sciences. In the 1940s and throughout the Cold War, these concerns centered on the consequences of using technology to develop ever more powerful nuclear weapons. Speaking before the Academy at the beginnings of World War II in 1941, Pius XII lamented the development and use of new technological weapons in war. He described science as a 鈥渄ouble-edged sword in the hands of men, capable of both healing and killing鈥� and warned that 鈥渨ar is lacerating the world and is employing all available technological resources to destroy it.鈥�
Weapons of mass destruction and nuclear war continue to threaten humankind. However, another kind of destruction caused by humans, namely the devastation that threatens the welfare of the earth and the environment, has come to the fore, as a major yet controversial concern that has its skeptics. Pope Benedict XVI鈥攚ho earned the moniker the 鈥淕reen Pope鈥� for his efforts to make Vatican City more environmentally efficient鈥攅xpressed fear for the continued existence of life on the earth. He wrote of the necessity to 鈥淩espect the interior laws of creation, of this Earth, to learn these laws and obey them if we want to survive. This obedience to the voice of the Earth is more important for our future happiness . . . than the desires of the moment. Our Earth is talking to us and we must listen to it and decipher its message if we want to survive.鈥�
Pope Benedict鈥檚 words anticipated Pope Francis鈥檚 now famous encyclical Laudate Si鈥� in 2015, in which Francis issued an 鈥渦rgent challenge to protect our common home 鈥� to bring the whole human family together to seek a sustainable and integral development, for we know that things can change.鈥�
Despite the science, both evolution and climate change continue to be controversial and, although distinct, linked in the mutual embrace of skepticism. Twelve years after the Dover decision, The New York Times carried a story with the headline, 鈥淓volving Tactics Helping Creationists Put Science on Trial in the Classroom.鈥� Citing a report about 鈥渢he endearing strength of the forces that embrace the biblical account of creation or reasonable facsimiles of it,鈥� the article detailed how 鈥渢he rejection of broad scientific consensus extends to issues like climate change.鈥� What is different, according to the article, is that such people may feel emboldened by the current atmosphere of populist nationalism held by government officials both in the United States and abroad that 鈥渟hares their doubts on some matters and has acted on them.
Mendel certainly falls within the tradition of concern for the earth. He is famously honored for his discovery of the laws of heredity and for helping to shape the world鈥檚 collective understanding of genes, crossbreeding, and heredity. Nevertheless, it is important to remember his achievements as a polymath. He published important works from his meteorological observations, while his study of bees also shaped his thinking on heredity. Mendel鈥檚 concerns for the environment are especially relevant today and were commemorated in the university鈥檚 second Mendel Symposium in 2017: 鈥淐are of Our Common Home: Pope Francis鈥檚 Encyclical Laudato Si鈥�.鈥�
TikTok成人版 is justly proud to celebrate its ninety-year vision of the compatibility of science and religion that Father Dougherty and the Board of Trustees intended.